Cloud Computing is a form of computing in which all applications, information and resources are managed in a virtual environment. The term cloud computing, specifically the use of the word "cloud", it meant to represent the nature and structure of cloud computing. Cloud computing involves virtual hosted environments allowing users to connect to the services being hosted over the internet.
Google Apps is a great example of cloud computing as companies to no longer require the need for installed word processing software, in house email servers, multiple IT personnel and many more cost saving advantages. Google Apps allows companies to access all services including email, website hosting, calendar, document editing/creation and much more directly through a web browser. The advantage to using Google Apps is increased productivity, security, lower IT costs and data backup. Microsoft has also entered the cloud computing realm by integrating its current software such as Word and outlook with online storage and easy accessibility.
Many hosting companies and even a few internet retailers are beginning to offer cloud hosting services. Rackspace, an internet hosting company, has begun to offer cloud hosting for clients who wish to have personal cloud applications in an environment controlled by them. Amazon.com is also offering cloud hosting services due to its large infrastructure and internet bandwidth capabilities. Most cloud hosting companies offer easy setup and creation of private cloud hosting with simple user interfaces. Most cloud hosting companies have per usage pricing instead of flat rate pricing. Users simply pay for the amount of processing, bandwidth and storage that they use. This pricing method benefits both cloud hosting companies and end users.
There are three main variations of cloud computing:
1.IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): The need for expensive equipment is outsourced. Instead of companies purchasing expensive equipment including servers, hard drives and networking equipment, they would instead be used over the Cloud and hosted by a cloud computing company. The business entity would use the virtual equipment on a cost usage basis.
2.PaaS (Platform as a Service): Applications are run off of cloud servers hosted virtually. A small company selling cloud applications to businesses will use PaaS to "host" the sold cloud applications and have them run off of the cloud servers instead of having them run off of in-house servers. The company selling the applications pays for the services based on a processor/bandwidth basis.
3.SaaS (Software as a Service): Cloud applications are paid for on a per use basis and not sold in bulk licenses. This allows small companies to purchase a la carte licensing for applications they may use infrequently. Instead of purchasing 15 licenses a company can instead only pay when the software is used and removing the limits on how many machines the software can be installed on.
IaaS, Infrastructure as a Service, is currently the most widely used cloud service. IaaS allows small, medium and even large companies to cut costs considerably. Companies can completely remove the need for expensive network equipment, expensive bandwidth to support their network, expensive network storage equipment and much more. A company only pays for what they use from the cloud infrastructure thus eliminating the capital lost due to lack of usage from in house network equipment, bandwidth, etc. As IaaS gains more popularity and more cloud hosting companies emerge, costs can potentially drop even more due to oversupply and increased cloud hosting competition.
PaaS, Platform as a Service, is second to IaaS in terms of popularity and consumer adoption. A small company selling cloud applications and/or cloud services does not have to host the applications but can instead have them hosted elsewhere. Platform as a Service saves the company selling the applications/services as expensive network equipment, bandwidth and the need for additional IT personnel are instead outsourced to a cloud hosting company. This allows cloud application companies and even small developers the ability to enter the cloud application market without the need for considerable startup capital. PaaS has the potential to overtake IaaS in terms of consumer adoption and overall use.
SaaS, Software as a Service, is the least used cloud hosting service. It is a win-win for both consumers and the software companies. Consumers save money as heavily priced software licenses are no longer necessary due to the fact that consumers are only paying when the software is used. The need to purchase software in bulk is removed and every consumers' software needs are custom suited based on usage. This is also a win for cloud software companies as it will attract more consumers due to the custom pricing model. Consumers who could not afford the high cost of bulk software licenses will now be able to purchase based directly on their software usage needs. SaaS has the potential to completely revolutionize the software industry and may even curb software piracy.
The customized nature of cloud computing is what makes it such a popular and newly adopted internet technology. It will revolutionize the way that networking and everyday computing is run. It is a great win-win situation for both cloud companies and consumers.
Potential Disadvantages
There are also disadvantages to cloud computing, specifically in online storage and client applications. A company which utilizes cloud computing to host its email, document editing, calendars and other applications can be shut down if a cloud hosting company experiences downtime. This specific disadvantage was the case on February 24th, 2009, when Google Apps as well as Gmail were down for several hours. The downtime also reiterated that if Google can go down so can any other hosting companies. Confidence in cloud computing may have been hindered after this specific downtime although Google has assured it will not happen again. Google Apps services over 1million business around the world and is the leader in cloud computing applications.
Security is also a potential disadvantage to cloud computing. Companies that are willing to adopt the ability to host their services on the cloud may be reluctant to do so until the security of cloud computing has been heavily demonstrated and thoroughly tested. Large companies may consider the additional costs of in-house network hosting outweigh the potential security risks associated with cloud hosting. A security breach involving a companys' cloud information storage has the potential for disaster. However, hacking and security breaches are rampant for in-house IT hosting such as millions of credit card numbers being stolen as well as detailed customer information. If cloud computing can prove that its security is much better than any in-house hosting this may help it to grow and overtake the percentage of companies that have in-house IT infrastructures.
Cloud computing is still in its infancy and is expected to grow and revolutionize the way of everyday computing. Many theorize that cloud computing will one day take over today's desktop computing altogether. Until intense applications are developed for use over the cloud, desktop computing will remain the staple of everyday computing. Cloud computing innovation is rapid and as new cloud technologies emerge more people will start to adopt the cloud.
Current browser technologies are not up to date with cloud computing capabilities, especially in the mobile computing world. Cloud applications require several browser technologies including Adobe Flash, JavaScript, Adobe Flex and much more. Until browser technology evolves to fit the capabilities of cloud computing, cloud computing will remain a relatively simple method of computing.
Thursday, October 29, 2009
Service Sector Oppotunities in the Internet Economy
Over the last several decades the service sector has experienced the most employment growth in the United States. This sector is especially conducive for Broadband applications. Services makes up roughly 50% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is ripe with opportunities for rural Americans that have access to Broadband Internet connections.
The growth of this sector has increased businesses productivity and in many cases globalized its marketplace. Information technology and the service sector are the primary drivers of economic growth. The result of this has led to increasing private service sector exports and imports. Unfortunately U.S. businesses export more services than they import. That has created a problem for both businesses and American workers seeking opportunities. When polled most businesses in the states admitted that most of their service jobs go overseas for two reasons; one being the ability to find an abundance low-wage workers, for jobs such as call center reps and the lack of Broadband access for rural workers, who are primarily the people seeking the work. The lack of Broadband access is also putting high-wage jobs, like software development, at risk of going overseas as well.
Here is where the opportunity for American job seekers comes in. Businesses have a problem with the exporting of services. The business polled revealed, close to 20% were engaged in global off shoring of some if not all of their service support activity - 52% goes to India.
Businesses cited that doing so reduced costs, freed up management time and gave their customers 24/7 access to support. The problem for those same businesses was a whopping 67% customer dissatisfaction rating with the outsourced services. Nearly every business surveyed said they would be interested in bringing back those jobs if rural employees could be recruited. It makes sense for businesses to retain a high level of customer satisfaction, not to mention the favorable government tax incentives for keeping the jobs stateside.
Because cable and DSL providers have failed to service so many rural areas, a large number of potential job candidates were ineligible for these jobs. However Satellite Internet has changed this dynamic. It has been the stance of many of the cable and DSL providers that providing services to customers in rural areas would not be profitable enough to undertake. Satellite Internet, because of the way it is delivered, makes the most sense. With speeds comparable to DSL services, Satellite Internet has the speed and reliability the businesses are looking for. Best of all - it is available everywhere.
It is important to note the nearly 70% of rural Americans polled say they are interested in working for home over the Internet. 50% of retirees, were interested in returning to the workforce, citing flexible schedules, supplemental income, social interaction and intellectual stimulation as inducements. 54% of all rural candidates nationwide stated they have broadband Internet access currently, 79% subscribe to Satellite Internet services.
For rural Americans, Satellite Internet access is the key to becoming viable for telework opportunities that will be most assuredly coming with the advent of the Federal Broadband Stimulus plan and the need/want of U.S. businesses to bring jobs back home.
The growth of this sector has increased businesses productivity and in many cases globalized its marketplace. Information technology and the service sector are the primary drivers of economic growth. The result of this has led to increasing private service sector exports and imports. Unfortunately U.S. businesses export more services than they import. That has created a problem for both businesses and American workers seeking opportunities. When polled most businesses in the states admitted that most of their service jobs go overseas for two reasons; one being the ability to find an abundance low-wage workers, for jobs such as call center reps and the lack of Broadband access for rural workers, who are primarily the people seeking the work. The lack of Broadband access is also putting high-wage jobs, like software development, at risk of going overseas as well.
Here is where the opportunity for American job seekers comes in. Businesses have a problem with the exporting of services. The business polled revealed, close to 20% were engaged in global off shoring of some if not all of their service support activity - 52% goes to India.
Businesses cited that doing so reduced costs, freed up management time and gave their customers 24/7 access to support. The problem for those same businesses was a whopping 67% customer dissatisfaction rating with the outsourced services. Nearly every business surveyed said they would be interested in bringing back those jobs if rural employees could be recruited. It makes sense for businesses to retain a high level of customer satisfaction, not to mention the favorable government tax incentives for keeping the jobs stateside.
Because cable and DSL providers have failed to service so many rural areas, a large number of potential job candidates were ineligible for these jobs. However Satellite Internet has changed this dynamic. It has been the stance of many of the cable and DSL providers that providing services to customers in rural areas would not be profitable enough to undertake. Satellite Internet, because of the way it is delivered, makes the most sense. With speeds comparable to DSL services, Satellite Internet has the speed and reliability the businesses are looking for. Best of all - it is available everywhere.
It is important to note the nearly 70% of rural Americans polled say they are interested in working for home over the Internet. 50% of retirees, were interested in returning to the workforce, citing flexible schedules, supplemental income, social interaction and intellectual stimulation as inducements. 54% of all rural candidates nationwide stated they have broadband Internet access currently, 79% subscribe to Satellite Internet services.
For rural Americans, Satellite Internet access is the key to becoming viable for telework opportunities that will be most assuredly coming with the advent of the Federal Broadband Stimulus plan and the need/want of U.S. businesses to bring jobs back home.
how to repair dial-up modem
Dial-up modems are the core component to a dial-up connection. It is the device responsible for creating and maintaining a connection with your ISP and to translate analog information for your computer to display. If you have determined that your modem is causing disconnects or inability to connect, you will need to reinstall, repair, or replace it.
Three basic reasons that your modem would cause problems connecting are:
1. It is not installed correctly on the computer.
2. It needs updated driver software.
3. It is out of date, physically broken, or has corrupted software.
The solutions to these problems below should solve the problem and get you back online.
Reinstall your modem. Before you remove your modem, make sure you have the installation CD that came with your computer. If you don't, you might be able to reinstall without it. If your computer's operating system is XP or Vista, the plug and play feature should install the modem for you or guide you through each step. On older versions, you may need to consult a computer technician. Then follow these steps:
1. Open Control Panel, then (in classic view) "Phone and Modem Options".
2. Click on the Modems tab, and click on the modem you wish to reinstall.
3. Click Remove. Click "Yes" or "Ok" to confirm the remove, then close all the windows.
4. Restart your computer. Windows should detect your modem and either install it on its own, or present a "Found New Hardware" wizard that guides you through installing the modem again.
There are a few problems that might occur when you reinstall the modem. You computer may not detect the modem again when you restart. This could mean the modem cannot be repaired by reinstalling or was never physically on the computer in the first place. Another problem could be that your computer tries to reinstall, but won't complete because it requires an installation CD. If this happens and you don't have the CD, you can sometimes find installation software online on the manufacturer's website. A computer technician can help you with this step, or may have other solutions.Reinstalling does not guarantee to resolve your problem, even if it is successful. However, sometimes it works and it's a worth a try, especially if you couldn't connect to the Internet in the first place.
Update your modem drivers. If you have an older computer, you may need to update your modem software if you still can't connect to the Internet.
To update your modem software, you need to know your modem type and manufacturer. Look for your modem name is listed in Phone and Modem Options, under the Modems tab. If you are using the modem that came with the computer, you could also check your computer's manual, or your modem's manual if you bought it separately.
You can browse online to find your modem manufacturer's website. Often there is a "downloads" heading, but you can also run a search on your modem's name. The download will have your modem's name and "driver" in the title. See a computer technician if you are unfamiliar with computer device downloads as this could be too complicated for beginner users to try alone.
Buy a new modem. Your modem may not be repairable if it can't be reinstalled, or if the driver software will not improve your situation. This is especially true for old computers. Buying a new modem may be the best option available. For one, new modems are more reliable, relatively inexpensive (often between $20-50), and have the latest, fastest compression technology.
Three basic reasons that your modem would cause problems connecting are:
1. It is not installed correctly on the computer.
2. It needs updated driver software.
3. It is out of date, physically broken, or has corrupted software.
The solutions to these problems below should solve the problem and get you back online.
Reinstall your modem. Before you remove your modem, make sure you have the installation CD that came with your computer. If you don't, you might be able to reinstall without it. If your computer's operating system is XP or Vista, the plug and play feature should install the modem for you or guide you through each step. On older versions, you may need to consult a computer technician. Then follow these steps:
1. Open Control Panel, then (in classic view) "Phone and Modem Options".
2. Click on the Modems tab, and click on the modem you wish to reinstall.
3. Click Remove. Click "Yes" or "Ok" to confirm the remove, then close all the windows.
4. Restart your computer. Windows should detect your modem and either install it on its own, or present a "Found New Hardware" wizard that guides you through installing the modem again.
There are a few problems that might occur when you reinstall the modem. You computer may not detect the modem again when you restart. This could mean the modem cannot be repaired by reinstalling or was never physically on the computer in the first place. Another problem could be that your computer tries to reinstall, but won't complete because it requires an installation CD. If this happens and you don't have the CD, you can sometimes find installation software online on the manufacturer's website. A computer technician can help you with this step, or may have other solutions.Reinstalling does not guarantee to resolve your problem, even if it is successful. However, sometimes it works and it's a worth a try, especially if you couldn't connect to the Internet in the first place.
Update your modem drivers. If you have an older computer, you may need to update your modem software if you still can't connect to the Internet.
To update your modem software, you need to know your modem type and manufacturer. Look for your modem name is listed in Phone and Modem Options, under the Modems tab. If you are using the modem that came with the computer, you could also check your computer's manual, or your modem's manual if you bought it separately.
You can browse online to find your modem manufacturer's website. Often there is a "downloads" heading, but you can also run a search on your modem's name. The download will have your modem's name and "driver" in the title. See a computer technician if you are unfamiliar with computer device downloads as this could be too complicated for beginner users to try alone.
Buy a new modem. Your modem may not be repairable if it can't be reinstalled, or if the driver software will not improve your situation. This is especially true for old computers. Buying a new modem may be the best option available. For one, new modems are more reliable, relatively inexpensive (often between $20-50), and have the latest, fastest compression technology.
Latest web browser-google chrome
If you like Google for its speed and simplicity, you might be interested in their Internet browser, Chrome. Google created Chrome because they wanted to start from scratch on a browser made for today's Internet. The Internet has changed a lot since the first browsers were developed. Chrome is simple and neat, but loaded with security, speed, and functionality features.
Google acknowledges their use of features already implemented on browsers, like Firefox Safari, to design Chrome. Chrome is an open source project, meaning that other can use from their ideas as well. One of the features you'll recognize is bookmarks. You can automatically copy bookmarks or favorites from another browser and instantly save a new bookmark by clicking the star icon next to the address bar. These features are identical to those of Firefox.
Like Internet Explorer, Chrome as the option of tabbed browsing and reordering the tabs. However, Chrome allows you to drag tabs into their own windows, or drag windows to become a tab of another window. Chrome also has "Crash Control", which lets each tab run individually to avoid shutting down the whole browser if one tab crashes.
Chrome carries Google's tradition of personalizing and simplifying tasks, using the features from the homepage and Google toolbar. When you open a new tab, for example, you will see a thumbnails of previous and often visited websites to choose from, instead of a blank page. Also, while typing in the address bar, Google suggests visited sites and popular sites, or to run a Google search on the keyword(s) you entered.
Chrome was one of the first browsers to have a private searching option. While surfing "incognito", pages are displayed as read-only, and nothing from these sites are saved on your computer. Google Chrome also has its own task manager. Just like Windows, Chrome allows you to track usage and running processes on the browser. You can detect what add-on, tab, or other process that is using the most bandwidth and end processes separately without disrupting the other processes.
Like many browsers, Google Chrome claims to be the safest and the fastest browser. There are so many ways to test this and different factors that effect actual speed, that this is difficult to prove. In fact, Chrome could work faster for some people or websites, where Internet Explorer or another browser would be faster in another area. Regardless, there is no doubt that this browser is well made and is preferred by a small group of users.
If you just want a fast engine and don't need a bunch of buttons and toolbars, Google Chrome might be just right for you. To read more details about Chrome features or to download the latest version of Chrome, go to google.com/chrome.
Google acknowledges their use of features already implemented on browsers, like Firefox Safari, to design Chrome. Chrome is an open source project, meaning that other can use from their ideas as well. One of the features you'll recognize is bookmarks. You can automatically copy bookmarks or favorites from another browser and instantly save a new bookmark by clicking the star icon next to the address bar. These features are identical to those of Firefox.
Like Internet Explorer, Chrome as the option of tabbed browsing and reordering the tabs. However, Chrome allows you to drag tabs into their own windows, or drag windows to become a tab of another window. Chrome also has "Crash Control", which lets each tab run individually to avoid shutting down the whole browser if one tab crashes.
Chrome carries Google's tradition of personalizing and simplifying tasks, using the features from the homepage and Google toolbar. When you open a new tab, for example, you will see a thumbnails of previous and often visited websites to choose from, instead of a blank page. Also, while typing in the address bar, Google suggests visited sites and popular sites, or to run a Google search on the keyword(s) you entered.
Chrome was one of the first browsers to have a private searching option. While surfing "incognito", pages are displayed as read-only, and nothing from these sites are saved on your computer. Google Chrome also has its own task manager. Just like Windows, Chrome allows you to track usage and running processes on the browser. You can detect what add-on, tab, or other process that is using the most bandwidth and end processes separately without disrupting the other processes.
Like many browsers, Google Chrome claims to be the safest and the fastest browser. There are so many ways to test this and different factors that effect actual speed, that this is difficult to prove. In fact, Chrome could work faster for some people or websites, where Internet Explorer or another browser would be faster in another area. Regardless, there is no doubt that this browser is well made and is preferred by a small group of users.
If you just want a fast engine and don't need a bunch of buttons and toolbars, Google Chrome might be just right for you. To read more details about Chrome features or to download the latest version of Chrome, go to google.com/chrome.
Wavelength Service in Optical Transport Networks
Optical WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) networks are networks that deploy optical WDM fiber links where each fiber link carries multiple wavelength channels. An All Optical Network (AON) is an optical WDM network which provides end-to-end optical paths by using all optical nodes that allow optical signal to stay in optical domain without conversion to electrical signal. AONs are usually optical circuit-switched networks where circuits are switched by intermediate nodes in the granularity of a wavelength channel. Hence a circuit-switched AON is also called a wavelength routing network where optical circuits are equivalent to wavelength channels.
A wavelength routing network consists of optical cross-connects (OXC) and optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM) interconnected by WDM fibers. Transmission of data over this optical network is done using optical circuit-switching connections, known as lightpaths. An OXC is an N x N optical switch with N input fibers and N output fibers with each fiber carries W wavelengths. The OXC can optically switch all of the incoming wavelengths of its input fibers to the outgoing wavelengths of its output fibers. An OADM can terminate the signals on a number of wavelengths and inserts new signals into these wavelengths. The remaining wavelengths pass through the OADM transparently.
In order for a user (router A) to transmit data to a destination user (router B), a circuit-switching connection is established by using a wavelength on each hop along the connection path. This unidirectional optical path is called a lightpath and the node between each hop is either an OXC or an OADM. A separate lightpath has to be established using different fibers to set up transmission in the opposite direction. To satisfy the wavelength continuity constraint, the same wavelength is used on every hop along the lightpath. If a lightpath is blocked because the required wavelength is unavailable, a converter in an OXC can transform the optical signal transmitted from one wavelength to another wavelength.
Since the bandwidth of a wavelength is often much larger than that requires by a single client, traffic glooming is used to allow the bandwidth of a lightpath to be shared by many clients. The bandwidth of a lightpath is divided into subrate units; clients can request one or more subrate units to carry traffic streams at lower rates. For example, information is transmitted over an optical network using SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) framing with a transmission rate of OC-48 (2.488 Gbps). A lightpath is established from OXC1 to OXC3 through OXC2 using wavelength w, the subrate unit available on this lightpath is OC-3 (155 Mbps). A user on OXC1 can request any integer number of OC-3 subrate units up to a total of 16 to transmit data to another user on OXC3. A network operator can use traffic-groomed lightpaths to provide subrate transport services to the users by adding a virtual network to the optical network.
Information on a lightpath is typically transmitted using SONET framing. In the future, the information transmitted over optical network will use the new ITU-T G.709 standard, known as digital wrapper. In ITU-T, an optical network is referred to as the optical transport network (OTN). The following are some of the features of G.709 standard:
1) The standard permits transmission of different types of traffic: IP packets and gigabit Ethernet frames using Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ATM cells and SONET/SDH synchronous data.
2) It supports three bit rate granularities: 2.488 Gbps, 9.95 Gbps and 39.81 Gbps.
3) It provides capabilities to monitor a connection on an end-to-end basis over several carriers, as well as over a single carrier.
4) G.709 uses Forward Error Correction (FEC) to detect and correct bit errors caused by physical impairments in the transmission links.
Lightpath can either be static or dynamic. Static lightpaths are established using network management procedures and may remain up for a long time. Virtual Private Networks (VPN) can be set up using static lightpaths. Dynamic lightpaths are established in real time using signaling protocols, such as IETF's GMPLS (Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching) and UNI (User Network Interface) proposed by Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF). GMPLS is an extension of MPLS and was designed to apply MPLS label switching techniques to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) networks and wavelength routing networks, in addition to packet switching networks. The OIF UNI specifies signaling procedures for clients to automatically create, delete and query a connection over wavelength routing network. The UNI signaling is implemented by extending the label distribution protocols, LDP and RSVP-TE.
A wavelength routing network consists of optical cross-connects (OXC) and optical add/drop multiplexers (OADM) interconnected by WDM fibers. Transmission of data over this optical network is done using optical circuit-switching connections, known as lightpaths. An OXC is an N x N optical switch with N input fibers and N output fibers with each fiber carries W wavelengths. The OXC can optically switch all of the incoming wavelengths of its input fibers to the outgoing wavelengths of its output fibers. An OADM can terminate the signals on a number of wavelengths and inserts new signals into these wavelengths. The remaining wavelengths pass through the OADM transparently.
In order for a user (router A) to transmit data to a destination user (router B), a circuit-switching connection is established by using a wavelength on each hop along the connection path. This unidirectional optical path is called a lightpath and the node between each hop is either an OXC or an OADM. A separate lightpath has to be established using different fibers to set up transmission in the opposite direction. To satisfy the wavelength continuity constraint, the same wavelength is used on every hop along the lightpath. If a lightpath is blocked because the required wavelength is unavailable, a converter in an OXC can transform the optical signal transmitted from one wavelength to another wavelength.
Since the bandwidth of a wavelength is often much larger than that requires by a single client, traffic glooming is used to allow the bandwidth of a lightpath to be shared by many clients. The bandwidth of a lightpath is divided into subrate units; clients can request one or more subrate units to carry traffic streams at lower rates. For example, information is transmitted over an optical network using SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) framing with a transmission rate of OC-48 (2.488 Gbps). A lightpath is established from OXC1 to OXC3 through OXC2 using wavelength w, the subrate unit available on this lightpath is OC-3 (155 Mbps). A user on OXC1 can request any integer number of OC-3 subrate units up to a total of 16 to transmit data to another user on OXC3. A network operator can use traffic-groomed lightpaths to provide subrate transport services to the users by adding a virtual network to the optical network.
Information on a lightpath is typically transmitted using SONET framing. In the future, the information transmitted over optical network will use the new ITU-T G.709 standard, known as digital wrapper. In ITU-T, an optical network is referred to as the optical transport network (OTN). The following are some of the features of G.709 standard:
1) The standard permits transmission of different types of traffic: IP packets and gigabit Ethernet frames using Generic Framing Procedure (GFP), ATM cells and SONET/SDH synchronous data.
2) It supports three bit rate granularities: 2.488 Gbps, 9.95 Gbps and 39.81 Gbps.
3) It provides capabilities to monitor a connection on an end-to-end basis over several carriers, as well as over a single carrier.
4) G.709 uses Forward Error Correction (FEC) to detect and correct bit errors caused by physical impairments in the transmission links.
Lightpath can either be static or dynamic. Static lightpaths are established using network management procedures and may remain up for a long time. Virtual Private Networks (VPN) can be set up using static lightpaths. Dynamic lightpaths are established in real time using signaling protocols, such as IETF's GMPLS (Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching) and UNI (User Network Interface) proposed by Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF). GMPLS is an extension of MPLS and was designed to apply MPLS label switching techniques to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) networks and wavelength routing networks, in addition to packet switching networks. The OIF UNI specifies signaling procedures for clients to automatically create, delete and query a connection over wavelength routing network. The UNI signaling is implemented by extending the label distribution protocols, LDP and RSVP-TE.
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